On September 25, 2025, a group of Muslims in Thane city, Maharashtra, western India, marched outside a mosque near the Mumbai railway station with posters reading "I Love Muhammad" (Getty Images).
Over the past month, Indian police have raided multiple markets and residences, arresting several Muslim men in states under the control of Prime Minister Modi's Hindu nationalist party. Some of their homes were also demolished.
The cause of the criminal charges against them is common: writing "I Love Muhammad" on posters, t-shirts, or social media posts. Indian authorities claim that such expressions threaten "public order."
So far, at least 22 cases involving more than 2,500 Muslims have occurred. According to the non-profit organization "Association for Protection of Civil Rights" (APCR), at least 40 people have been arrested in states governed by the BJP.
What exactly happened? How did this start and why? Is it illegal to say "I Love Muhammad" in India?
What Happened?
On September 4 this year, Muslim residents in Kanpur, a city in northern India's Uttar Pradesh, were celebrating the Islamic prophet Muhammad's birthday - Mawlid. At that time, a community erected a glowing sign that read, "I Love Muhammad."
This sign imitated the popular "I Love New York" slogan, which led to criticism from some Hindus in the area. Initially, they complained that the glowing sign introduced new content into traditional festivals, and the law in Uttar Pradesh prohibits adding any new content to public religious celebrations. It should be noted that Kanpur has about 20% Muslim population.
However, based on these complaints, the police filed charges against more than 20 people with more serious offenses: inciting religious hatred. If convicted, the defendants could face up to five years in prison.
The Kanpur incident triggered widespread criticism from Muslim political leaders, and waves of protests against police actions spread to other states, including Telangana in southern India, Gujarat in the west, Maharashtra in the west, and Uttarakhand and Jammu and Kashmir in the north. At the same time, the slogan "I Love Muhammad" appeared across India - from social media accounts to ordinary t-shirts.
On September 26, a group of people in Bareilly, about 270 kilometers from Kanpur, clashed violently with the police while participating in a protest organized by a local imam against the arrests in Kanpur.
The police then retaliated and arrested 75 people, including Imam Tauqir Raza, his relatives, and assistants. The local government at least demolished four buildings belonging to the aforementioned individuals.
In recent years, hundreds of Indian Muslims have lost their homes due to such demolitions. These demolition actions are usually carried out without notification or court orders. The Indian Supreme Court stated that demolitions cannot be used as an extrajudicial punishment and warned state authorities to provide prior notice before demolishing any property. However, activists say that this order is often not followed in practice.
Meanwhile, dozens of Muslims have been arrested in different states, including some Muslims in Modi's home state of Gujarat, because they posted videos and posts on social media with the slogan "I Love Muhammad."
June 12, 2022, a bulldozer demolishes the house of a Muslim man in Prayagraj, India. Authorities claimed the house was illegally built (Reuters).
Is This Behavior Illegal?
The Indian Constitution guarantees freedom of religion and the right to express one's religious beliefs. Article 25 of the Indian Constitution protects the right of every person to practice their religion. Indian citizens are also protected by the first clause of Article 19 of the Constitution - which guarantees the freedom of speech and expression, unless the content directly incites violence or hatred.
People arrested during the crackdown on the "I Love Muhammad" slogan are often charged by the police under legal provisions that prohibit holding large gatherings aimed at "pranks" or suspected of inciting religious tensions. These provisions also apply to those arrested for posting posts on social media or wearing t-shirts with the phrase "I Love Muhammad."
Nadeem Khan is the national coordinator of the non-profit organization "Association for Protection of Civil Rights" (APCR), which has been tracking such incidents. He has previously filed lawsuits against local officials over similar incidents targeting Muslim social media comments or the demolition of houses.
Nadeem Khan told Al Jazeera that the authorities carefully use legal provisions, focusing not on the "I Love Muhammad" speech itself, but on the alleged illegal acts committed by those who use this speech or protest against police crackdowns.
Nadeem Khan said, "They know that no law can classify the 'I Love Muhammad' speech as a crime."
Nadeem Khan pointed out that images of Hindu gods wielding traditional weapons are already common throughout India. He asked, "These images are everywhere in India; should they also be considered offensive or threatening to all Muslims?" He added, "Everyone should understand that the government cannot criminalize religion like this," referring to Islam.
Since Modi took power in New Delhi in 2014, a series of international democratic indices in India have continued to decline.
Akash Patel, head of Amnesty International India, said that criminalizing people's freedom of speech and religious belief creates an alarming precedent.
Patel told Al Jazeera: "Slogans like 'I Love Muhammad' are peaceful and do not contain any incitement or threat, but according to the Indian Constitution or international human rights law, targeting and cracking down on such slogans does not meet the threshold for criminal restrictions."
He added, "Public order issues must be resolved appropriately, not as a reason for comprehensive suppression of religious identity or expression."
Patel from Amnesty International said, "The state's responsibility is to equally protect citizens' rights, not to regulate the expression of faith. Fulfilling constitutional and international commitments is not optional, but a legal obligation."
September 25, 2025, people in Thane city, Maharashtra, western India, hold posters reading "I Love Muhammad" outside a mosque near the Monabazaar railway station (Getty Images).
Is There a Pattern Here?
Critics say this crackdown is just the latest example of Muslims in India facing marginalization, violence, or legal punishment since Modi came to power in 2014.
In the past 11 years, hate speech incidents against religious minorities in India have increased sharply. Recorded hate speech incidents rose from 668 in 2023 to 1,165 last year, an increase of about 74%. Most of these incidents occurred in states governed by the BJP or in areas where elections are about to be held.
Political analyst Asim Ali, based in Delhi, said disputes between Hindus and Muslims at the local level are now rapidly turning into national issues.
"From compliant media to social media organizations, the entire media ecosystem is rapidly spreading this hatred," Ali added, "and the legal interpretation of this is that any expression of religious identity - especially Muslim identity - may be seen as inciting religious hatred."
After the "I Love Muhammad" incident in Kanpur, the BJP leader in Modi's constituency Varanasi put up posters reading "I Love Bulldozers" at major intersections in the city, implying that bulldozers would be used to demolish the homes of these defendants.
January 29, 2020, protesters participated in a demonstration in New Delhi against India's controversial Citizenship Amendment Act, which was widely criticized as a discriminatory bill targeting Muslim asylum seekers (French media).
What Impact Does This Have on Young Muslims?
Political analyst Rashid Kidwai said the controversy surrounding the slogan "I Love Muhammad" is "clearly political rather than religious."
Kidwai said that in India, Muslims, especially young Muslims, are increasingly feeling frustrated because they find that not everyone is subject to the same set of rules in terms of cultural identity and dietary habits.
According to data provided by the "Association for Protection of Civil Rights", several defendants or arrested individuals in the crackdown on the "I Love Muhammad" slogan are young Muslims, including those arrested for social media posts.
Ali said that the crackdown on the "I Love Muhammad" slogan might further alienate the government from young Muslims. Ali told Al Jazeera, "In theory, everyone has committed a crime and may be targeted simply for existing."
"It's becoming increasingly hard to imagine what will happen in the future," he added, "the pace of hatred is increasing day by day."
Sources: Al Jazeera
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