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Author | Mu Hongyan
Editor | Zhu Yilin
Reviewer | Shan Minmin
Summary
Hinduism and Buddhism, both originating from Indian culture, are two religions that have had a significant impact on world culture. At the same time, they are also competitors. In India, Hinduism defeated Buddhism, leading to the eventual demise of Buddhism in India; however, in Southeast Asia, it was Theravāda Buddhism that defeated Hinduism. Although Hinduism has not completely disappeared in Southeast Asia, it is limited to certain areas. The reasons for Hinduism's defeat by Buddhism in Southeast Asia deserve attention and reflection. The South Asian Research Newsletter reprints this article for your reference.
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Religions in Southeast Asia have been strongly influenced by India. The overall development pattern is as follows: from the beginning of the Common Era, Brahmanism, Theravāda Buddhism, Mahāyāna Buddhism, and indigenous Indian esoteric religions were introduced into Southeast Asia, alternating and blending, with none occupying a dominant position. From the 4th to the 11th century, Hinduism dominated in Southeast Asia. The 11th to 13th centuries were a period of transformation in Southeast Asian religions. After the late 11th century, Hinduism gradually declined in Southeast Asia; after the late 13th century, in the Indochina Peninsula (excluding Vietnam), Theravāda Buddhism replaced Hinduism and became dominant; in the archipelago region (excluding the Philippines and East Timor), Islam replaced Hinduism and became dominant.
The peninsula was home to the ancient Khmer civilization. As early as the first century AD, the kingdom of Chenla was established in the region, which was the first major kingdom in Southeast Asian history. Its territory mainly included present-day Cambodia, Laos, and the central and southern parts of Vietnam (anciently known as Champa), Thailand, and reached its peak in the south of Myanmar. The Khmer Empire was the most prosperous area of Hinduism in the Indochina Peninsula, especially during the Angkor Dynasty (early 8th century - mid-13th century). Due to the strong promotion by the ruling class, Hinduism spread extensively in the Indochina Peninsula, becoming the religious ideology of the Angkor Dynasty. The rulers used Hinduism to construct the concept of "divine right of kings," self-proclaiming themselves as "King of the Universe." However, by the mid-11th century, the religious situation in Southeast Asia began to change.
Firstly, after Anawrahta ascended the throne of the Pagan Kingdom (849–1287), he honored the Arhat monk from Sri Lanka as the national teacher in 1044, introducing pure Theravāda Buddhism from Sri Lanka and establishing it as the state religion, expelling other religions. Pagan thus became the Buddhist center of Myanmar, ushering in the golden age of Theravāda Buddhism in Myanmar's history. At the same time, the Sri Lankan lineage of Theravāda Buddhism began to develop in Southeast Asia. Thailand, formerly known as Siam, was historically long within the sphere of influence of the Khmer Empire. In 1238, the first independent dynasty of Thailand, the Sukhothai Dynasty (1238–1356), was established. To completely break free from the control of the Khmer Empire and gain independence, the rulers of the Sukhothai Dynasty realized that they needed to build their own discourse system in the ideological field. Therefore, they directly introduced Theravāda Buddhism from Sri Lanka and established a Sri Lankan lineage Theravāda Buddhist center in the southern part of Siam. A distinctive feature of Thai Theravāda Buddhism is the dual monastic system. This dual monastic system not only made Thai Buddhism flourish and the country prosperous but also, in turn, placed Cambodia and Laos under its influence, making these two countries also accept Theravāda Buddhism and adopt the dual monastic system.
In the island regions, before the arrival of Islam, Hinduism was the mainstream religion, although Buddhism was also spreading, it remained in a weak position. Because Hinduism was relatively strong in the island regions, even though the island regions became Islamicized after the 13th century, there are still local remnants of Hinduism in the region (such as Bali Island in Indonesia), while Hinduism in the peninsula region has basically disappeared, leaving only varying degrees of imprint in the peninsula culture.
Hinduism and Buddhism, both originating from Indian culture, are two religions that have had a significant impact on world culture. At the same time, they are also competitors. In India, Hinduism defeated Buddhism, leading to the eventual demise of Buddhism in India; however, in Southeast Asia, it was Theravāda Buddhism that defeated Hinduism. Although Hinduism has not completely disappeared in Southeast Asia, it is limited to certain areas. Regarding the reasons why Hinduism lost to Buddhism in Southeast Asia, the author believes there are several aspects.
Firstly, in India, Hinduism served the priesthood and the voice of the Brahmins, whereas in Southeast Asia, it served the monarchy. Hinduism in Southeast Asia was an imported religion, brought in by Indian merchants of the Vaisya caste as missionaries through trade, and then the Brahmins were invited from India to preside over the religious affairs of local monarchs. Therefore, as an imported religion, to gain a foothold in a region, it necessarily needed the support of the local rulers. To gain the support of the local rulers, it must create a theoretical system that serves the rulers. Thus, the way Hinduism took root in the Khmer Empire was to deify the king, elevating him to the same level as the gods (mainly Shiva and Vishnu, two major deities of Hinduism), creating a concept of "divine right of kings," where the king claimed to be the King of the Universe, a "god-king," a manifestation of the great god Shiva or Vishnu. "He is the boundary between the secular and the sacred, and the will and power of the highest deity must radiate throughout the entire world through him. He comes from the group but is above the group, a special being who combines divinity and kingship." Therefore, Hinduism in Southeast Asia combined the worship of Hinduism with the veneration of the monarch, playing an important role in the formation and consolidation of the monarchical regime in Southeast Asia. "This fusion of 'divine right of kings' and 'god-king unity' is essential in justifying the legitimacy of royal power, stabilizing the monarchical rule, and achieving immortal achievements." Therefore, in India, Hinduism constrained the authority of the Kshatriyas through the Brahmins, whereas in Southeast Asia, the religious authority of the Brahmin priests was entirely for the service of the monarchy. This led to the monarchy constraining the religious authority and doctrine of the Brahmin priests, rather than the doctrine constraining the monarchy.
When the monarchy decides the doctrine, a situation arises where when the king finds a certain religious belief supportive of his rule, he adopts it, and when he finds it no longer supportive, he abandons it, choosing another doctrine more supportive of his power. Hinduism in Southeast Asia declined because it was abandoned by the monarchy, and Theravāda Buddhism flourished due to the monarchy's choice. First, in Myanmar, in the mid-11th century, King Anawrahta of the Pagan Dynasty, based on national political interests, listened to the advice of the monk Arhat, excluded the Alisang sect, which was a mixture of Hinduism and Mahāyāna Buddhist Tantric traditions and had become decadent and indulgent, and established the Sri Lankan lineage of Theravāda Buddhism as the state religion, making the Pagan Dynasty the strongest dynasty in Myanmar's history. Moreover, in Thailand, after the establishment of the Sukhothai Dynasty, it was also for the purpose of countering the Khmer Empire politically, so it changed to Theravāda Buddhism, sent people to Sri Lanka to study scriptures, and established a dual monastic system, using Theravāda Buddhism to support the monarchical rule, thereby enabling Thailand to become prosperous and become the leader of the dual monastic system of Theravāda Buddhism, influencing Cambodia and Laos in turn. Therefore, the development of Hinduism in Southeast Asia mainly relied on the support of local monarchs, and similarly declined when the monarchs abandoned it.
The compatibility between the form of religion and the social and cultural form is particularly important for supporting a regime. The decline and fall of the Khmer Empire, although involving factors such as foreign invasions, was mainly due to the fact that the ruler did not choose a suitable religion to support his regime during the transformation of the religious form in the late 12th century. After Jayavarman VII ascended the throne in 1181, he converted to Mahāyāna Tantric Buddhism. Mahāyāna Tantric Buddhism is unsuitable for the secular society of mainland China and Southeast Asia, which involves many profound doctrinal issues of Mahāyāna Tantric Buddhism, which are not discussed here. As for why Southeast Asia did not choose Mahāyāna Buddhism during the transition from Hinduism to Buddhism, the author believes that it is mainly because the idea of "saving all beings" in Mahāyāna Buddhism is not compatible with the social and cultural context of Southeast Asia. Except for Vietnam, Southeast Asian culture does not have the support of Confucianism. The spirit of diligence in Confucianism is highly compatible with the idea of saving all beings in Mahāyāna Buddhism. The social and cultural context of Southeast Asia is similar to the southern minority areas of China that are considered "outside the reach of civilization" (such as Yunnan, Guizhou, Guangxi, etc.), which do not have too heavy constraints of Confucianism. Therefore, Theravāda Buddhism, which emphasizes individual attainment of enlightenment (Arhat's fruit), is more compatible with them. Therefore, the compatibility between the form of religion and the form of social and cultural context is particularly important. High compatibility can lead to development, while low compatibility makes it difficult to develop. For example, Chan Buddhism is particularly suitable for the scholar culture of inland China, Mahāyāna Tantric Buddhism is particularly suitable for Tibetan culture, Theravāda Buddhism is particularly suitable for Southeast Asian culture, and Hinduism is particularly suitable for Indian culture.
Secondly, the social structure plays a very important role in supporting and developing a religious culture, and Hinduism in Southeast Asia lacks the corresponding social structure to support it. Hinduism in the Indian subcontinent formed because of the large influx of Aryans. Before entering India, the Aryans already had three main occupational groups: priests (Brahmins), warriors (Kshatriyas), and farmers and herders (Vaishyas). After entering India, they used their verbal authority to denigrate the local indigenous Dravidians into the fourth group (Shudras), thus developing the caste system, making the caste system a social structure closely integrated with Hinduism, becoming a powerful support for the authority of the Brahmins. However, the traditional social structure in Southeast Asia, although having different social divisions and distinctions between monarchs and subjects, generally lacked a strict and rigid hierarchy. In Southeast Asia, Hinduism was introduced by a small number of Indian Vaishya merchants and Brahmin missionaries. A small number of missionaries could not bring the caste social structure of India into Southeast Asia, and a small number of Brahmins themselves could not become a caste, but merely played the role of a court advisor or imperial tutor. "Indonesia is unfamiliar with the Vedas, the classical texts of Hinduism, and the caste system has never been as strict as in India." Therefore, in Southeast Asia, the prosperity of Hinduism mainly relied on the support of the monarchy, rather than on the support of the social structure. Hinduism existed only as a religion designated by the monarchy, lacking a solid social foundation.
After the decline of Buddhism in India, Theravāda Buddhism in Southeast Asia played an important role in preserving Buddhist culture, and the teachings it preserved were more pure original teachings of the Buddha. Of course, some local adaptations were made in certain places. This adaptation mainly manifested in the adjustment of the doctrine of monastic practice, adopting a combination of monastic life and lay life. Boys must spend a certain period in monastic life during their lifetime, and the duration varies by region, some for a few months, others for several years. Then, they can return to lay life or remain permanently in monastic life. After returning to lay life, they can marry and start a family. Boys must have a monastic experience to gain social recognition and the rights to marriage and family. The Thai constitution even stipulates that the king must have a monastic experience. Therefore, the act of shaving one's head and entering the monastic life is the most important event in a boy's life, requiring a grand ceremony, followed by a series of celebrations, and in some places, a grand parade. During the monastic period, boys live and study in temples, fully observing the precepts of monks. Only after that can they return to lay life. The system of monastic life and lay life has extraordinary significance for the development and prosperity of Theravāda Buddhism, ensuring a solid social foundation for its development and flourishing. All males must enter monastic life, meaning that half of the population is engaged in monastic practice. The men who have entered monastic life and then returned to lay life and started families inevitably pass on the religious education they received in the temple to their wives and children, forming a universal faith and thus a broad social base. Subsequently, Theravāda Buddhism took root among the people of four Southeast Asian countries, becoming part of their cultural bloodline, nurturing their cultural trees to grow into tall, lush trees that cover the skies of the entire nation.
Thirdly, Hinduism in Southeast Asia lacks a corresponding religious theoretical system. In India, Hinduism formed a very profound and extensive philosophical system. The classical texts of Hinduism, such as the Vedas, Upanishads, and others, were accepted and taught by corresponding social groups in India. These theoretical doctrines not only supported the belief in Hinduism itself but also supported the social structure of India. However, in Southeast Asia, there was no corresponding social group to accept and teach these classics. The religious classics of Hinduism were not widely accepted by the people of Southeast Asia. The only two epics of Hinduism that were widely accepted by the people of Southeast Asia were the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, and they were adapted to a large extent. Although the legal classic of Hinduism, the Manusmriti, was also introduced to Southeast Asia, it underwent fundamental changes. In India, the Manusmriti supported the authority of the Brahmins; in Southeast Asia, the Manusmriti was adapted to support the divine right of kings, losing most of its original content. Although the legal codes of Myanmar and Thailand today are also called the Manusmriti, this Manusmriti is essentially not the same as the Indian Manusmriti. In Southeast Asia, the Brahmins were only as missionaries, preaching mainly the worship of Hindu deities, and spreading the worship and veneration of Shiva and Vishnu, along with their corresponding mythological systems. For example, Vishnu has ten incarnations, and the story of the first incarnation churning the ocean of milk is vividly reflected in the bas-reliefs of Angkor Wat. However, the profound philosophical system of Hinduism, especially the core philosophy of "Brahman and Self as One," was not accepted in Southeast Asia.
Theravāda Buddhism was able to take root in Southeast Asia precisely because it brought the Pali Canon from Sri Lanka, created the national script based on the Pali language, and used it to transcribe and write down the Pali Canon Buddhist scriptures. The creation of the national scripts of Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, and Laos was attributed to Theravāda Buddhism. The creation of the national script greatly promoted the dissemination of Theravāda Buddhist scriptures and their teachings, and at the same time, enabled Theravāda Buddhism in Southeast Asia to be firmly integrated with its own national culture, thereby gaining widespread development.
Lacking a social foundation and theoretical support, Hinduism in Southeast Asia was only propagated and developed as a purely royal-designated faith. For ordinary believers, the simpler the system of deity worship and religious rituals, the easier it is to be accepted. This is the nature of ordinary people. The system of deity worship and religious rituals of Hinduism is the most complex among all major religions in the world. Compared to Hinduism, the systems of worship and practice of Theravāda Buddhism and Islam are much simpler. Islam is very simple, with only the belief in the invisible and formless Allah, and five daily prayers; Theravāda Buddhism is also simple, without a complex system of deity worship and complicated practices, essentially one sentence: "Precepts, meditation, and wisdom to attain Arhat's fruit." Therefore, these two religions are easier to be accepted by ordinary people. Combined with the decisive role of the monarchy in choosing, Hinduism in Southeast Asia was eventually replaced by Theravāda Buddhism and Islam respectively.
About the Author: Mu Hongyan, Professor at the School of Asia, Beijing Foreign Studies University.
This article is reprinted from the WeChat public account "Cultural Horizons" on May 11, 2025, titled "Why Did Buddhism Replace Hinduism in Southeast Asia?" It is originally reprinted from the WeChat public account "Southeast Asian Scholars." The article is excerpted from "World Religions and Culture," Issue 6, 2022, titled "The Reasons for the Decline of Buddhism in India and the Replacement of Hinduism by Buddhism in Southeast Asia."
Original: https://www.toutiao.com/article/7561826622907662848/
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